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International Bureau of Weights and Measures

Coordinates: 48°49′45.55″N 2°13′12.64″E / 48.8293194°N 2.2201778°E / 48.8293194; 2.2201778
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International Bureau of Weights and Measures
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
AbbreviationBIPM (from French name)
Formation20 May 1875; 149 years ago (1875-05-20)
TypeIntergovernmental
Location
Coordinates48°49′45.55″N 2°13′12.64″E / 48.8293194°N 2.2201778°E / 48.8293194; 2.2201778
Region served
Worldwide
Membership64 member states
37 associate states (see the list)
Official language
French and English
Director
Martin Milton
Websitewww.bipm.org


The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (French: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, BIPM) is an intergovernmental organisation, through which its 64 member-states act on measurement standards in areas including chemistry, ionising radiation, physical metrology, as well as the International System of Units (SI) and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).[1][2] It is based in Saint-Cloud, near Paris, France. The organisation has been referred to as IBWM (from its name in English) in older literature.[note 1]

Structure

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The BIPM is overseen by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (French: Comité international des poids et mesures, CIPM), a committee of eighteen members that meet normally in two sessions per year,[4] which is in turn overseen by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (French: Conférence générale des poids et mesures, CGPM) that meets in Paris usually once every four years, consisting of delegates of the governments of the Member States[5][6] and observers from the Associates of the CGPM. These organs are also commonly referred to by their French initialisms.

History

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The creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures followed the Metre Convention of 1875, after the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871),[7] at the initiative of the International Geodetic Association.[8][9] This process began with the 1855 Paris Exposition, shortly after the Great Exhibition, when the need for international standardization of wheights and measures became apparent.[9] It culminated in the 1889 General Conference on Weights and Measures, with the distribution of the metre and kilogram standards to the States parties to the Metre Convention.[10][11]

The American Revolution led to the founding of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures in 1830.[12] During the mid-19th century, the metre was adopted in Khedivate of Egypt an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire for cadastral surveying.[13][14][15] In continental Europe, adoption of the metric system and a better standardisation of units of measurement marked the Technological Revolution, a period in which German Empire would challenge United Kingdom as the foremost industrial nation in Europe. This was accompanied by development in cartography which was a prerequisite for both military operations and the creation of the infrastructures needed for industrial development such as railways. During the process of unification of Germany, geodesists called for the establishment of an International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Europe.[16][17]

When the metre was adopted as an international unit of length, it was well know that it no longer corresponded to its historical definition[18]. Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero, first president of both the International Geodetic Association and the International Committee for Weigths and Measures, took part to the remeasurement and extention of the arc measurement of Delambre and Méchain[19]. At that time, mathematicians like Legendre and Gauss had developed new methods for processing data, including the least squares method which allowed to compare experimental data tainted with observational errors to a mathematical model.[20][21] Moreover the International Bureau of Weights and Measures would have a central role for international geodetic measurements as Charles Édouard Guillaume's discovery of invar minimized the impact of measurement inaccuracies due to temperature systematic errors.[22][23]

Geodetic standards and the Expositions Universelles (1855 /1867)

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Replicas of historical metric standards, including an iron copy of the mètre des Archives.

In the 19th century, units of measurement were defined by primary standards, and unique artifacts made of different alloys with distinct coefficients of expansion were the legal basis of units of length. A wrought iron ruler, the Toise of Peru, also called Toise de l'Académie, was the French primary standard of the toise, and the metre was officially defined by an artifact made of platinum kept in the National Archives.[24] Besides the latter, another platinum and twelve iron standards of the metre were made by Étienne Lenoir in 1799.[25] One of them became known as the Committee Meter in the United States and served as standard of length in the United States Coast Survey until 1890.[26]

Ibáñez apparatus calibrated on the metric Spanish standard and used at Aarberg, in canton of Bern, Switzerland in 1880.[27]

In 1855, the Dufour map (French: Carte Dufour), the first topographic map of Switzerland for which the metre was adopted as the unit of length, won the gold medal at the Exposition Universelle.[28][29] However, the baselines for this map were measured in 1834 with three toises long measuring rods calibrated on a toise made in 1821 by Jean Nicolas Fortin for Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve.[30][31]

The geodetic measuring device calibrated on the metre devised by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Frutos Saavedra Meneses, was displayed by Jean Brunner at the Exhibition.[32][33] The four-metre-long Spanish measuring instrument, which became known as the Spanish Standard (French: Règle espagnole), was compared with Borda's double-toise N° 1, which served as a comparison module for the measurement of all geodesic bases in France,[34][35] and was also to be compared to the Ibáñez apparatus.[36][34] These comparisons were essential, because of thermal expansion. Indeed, geodesists tried to accurately assess temperature of standards in the field in order to avoid temperature systematic errors.[23]

The Earth measurements thus underscored the importance of scientific methods at a time when statistics were implemented in geodesy.[21][20] As a leading scientist of his time, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero was one of the 81 initial members of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) and delegate of Spain to the first ISI session (now called World Statistic Congress) in Rome in 1887.[37][38] On the sidelines of the Exposition Universelle (1855) and the second Congress of Statistics held in Paris, an association with a view to obtaining a uniform decimal system of measures, weights and currencies was created in 1855.[9] Under the impetus of this association, a Committee for Weights and Measures and Monies (French: Comité des poids, mesures et monnaies) would be created during the Exposition Universelle (1867) in Paris and would call for the international adoption of the metric system.[10][9]

The metre and Struve Geodetic Arc (1816/1855)

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In 1858, a Technical Commission was set up to continue cadastral surveying inaugurated under Muhammad Ali. This Commission suggested to buy geodetic devices which were ordered in France. Mohammed Sa'id Pasha entrusted to Ismail Mustafa al-Falaki the study of the precision apparatus calibrated against the metre intended to measure geodetic baselines and built by Jean Brunner in Paris. Ismail Mustafa had the task to carry out the experiments necessary for determining the expansion coefficients of the two platinum and brass bars, and to compare the Egyptian standard with a known standard. The Spanish standard designed by Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero and Frutos Saavedra Meneses was chosen for this purpose, as it had served as a model for the construction of the Egyptian standard.[13][15]

It was not until 1954 that the connection of the southerly extension of the Struve Geodetic Arc, a chain of survey triangulations stretching from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, with an arc running northwards from South Africa through Egypt would bring the course of a major meridian arc back to land where Eratosthenes had founded geodesy.[39] The Struve Geodetic arc measurement extended on a period of forty years and initiated an international scientific collaboration between Russian Empire and the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway with the involvement of proeminent astronomers such as Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, Carl Friedrich Gauss and George Biddell Airy.[40] A French scientific instrument maker, Jean Nicolas Fortin, made three direct copies of the Toise of Peru, one for Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, a second for Heinrich Christian Schumacher in 1821 and a third for Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in 1823. In 1831, Henri-Prudence Gambey also realised a copy of the Toise of Peru which was kept at Altona Observatory.[25][41]

According to geodesists, these standards were secondary standards deduced from the Toise of Peru.[9] In continental Europe, except Spain,[42] surveyors continued to use measuring instruments calibrated on the Toise of Peru.[9] Among these, the toise of Bessel and the apparatus of Borda were respectively the main references for geodesy in Prussia and in France. These measuring devices consisted of bimetallic rulers in platinum and brass or iron and zinc fixed together at one extremity to assess the variations in length produced by any change in temperature. The combination of two bars made of two different metals allowed to take thermal expansion into account without measuring the temperature.[43][44]

Metric act of 1866 and calls for an international standard unit of length

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In 1866, Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler's use of the metre and the creation of the Office of Standard Weights and Measures as an office within the Coast Survey contributed to the introduction of the Metric Act of 1866 allowing the use of the metre in the United States,[45] and preceded the choice of the metre as international scientific unit of length and the proposal by the 1867 General Conference of the European Arc Measurement (German: Europäische Gradmessung) to establish the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.[17][8] Moreover, it was asserted that the Toise of Peru, the standard of the toise constructed in 1735 for the French Geodesic Mission to the Equator, might be so much damaged that comparison with it would be worthless,[31] while Bessel had questioned the accuracy of copies of this standard belonging to Altona and Koenigsberg Observatories, which he had compared to each other about 1840.[46][25]

This assertion was particularly worrying, because when the primary Imperial yard standard had partially been destroyed in 1834, a new standard of reference was constructed using copies of the "Standard Yard, 1760", instead of the pendulum's length as provided for in the Weights and Measures Act 1824,[47] because the pendulum method proved unreliable.[48][49]

International Geodetic Association

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In the second half of the 19th century, the creation of the International Geodetic Association marked,[50] following Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel and Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve examples,[20] the systematic adoption of more rigorous methods among them the application of the least squares in geodesy.[51][52] It became possible to accurately measure parallel arcs, since the difference in longitude between their ends could be determined thanks to the invention of the electrical telegraph.[31] Furthermore, advances in metrology combined with those of gravimetry have led to a new era of geodesy. If precision metrology had needed the help of geodesy, the latter could not continue to prosper without the help of metrology. It was then necessary to define a single unit to express all the measurements of terrestrial arcs and all determinations of the gravitational acceleration by means of pendulum.[53]

The intimate relationships that necessarily existed between metrology and geodesy explain that the International Association of Geodesy, founded to combine the geodetic operations of different countries, in order to reach a new and more exact determination of the shape and dimensions of the Globe, prompted the project of reforming the foundations of the metric system, while expanding it and making it international. Not, as it was mistakenly assumed for a certain time, that the Association had the unscientific thought of modifying the length of the metre, in order to conform exactly to its historical definition according to the new values that would be found for the terrestrial meridian. But, busy combining the arcs measured in the different countries and connecting the neighbouring triangulations, geodesists encountered, as one of the main difficulties, the unfortunate uncertainty which reigned over the equations of the units of length used. Adolphe Hirsch, General Baeyer and Colonel Ibáñez decided, in order to make all the standards comparable, to propose to the Association to choose the metre for geodetic unit, and to create an international prototype metre differing as little as possible from the mètre des Archives.[18]

In 1867 at the second General Conference of the International Association of Geodesy held in Berlin, the question of an international standard unit of length was discussed in order to combine the measurements made in different countries to determine the size and shape of the Earth.[18][54] According to a preliminary proposal made in Neuchâtel the precedent year,[19] the General Conference recommended the adoption of the metre in replacement of the toise of Bessel,[54][55] the creation of an International Metre Commission, and the foundation of a World institute for the comparison of geodetic standards, the first step towards the creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.[19][18]

Saint Petersburg Academy

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Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler's metrological and geodetic work also had a favourable response in Russia.[56][12] In 1869, the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences sent to the French Academy of Sciences a report drafted by Otto Wilhelm von Struve, Heinrich von Wild, and Moritz von Jacobi, whose theorem has long supported the assumption of an ellipsoid with three unequal axes for the figure of the Earth,[20] inviting his French counterpart to undertake joint action to ensure the universal use of the metric system in all scientific work.[48] The French Academy of Sciences and the Bureau des Longitudes in Paris drew the attention of the French government to this issue. In November 1869, Napoleon III issued invitations to join the International Metre Commission.[10]

The International Metre Commission (1870/1872)

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Main article: Metre Convention
Creating the metre-alloy in 1874 at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. Present Henri Tresca, George Matthey, Saint-Claire Deville, and Debray
Closeup of National Prototype Metre Bar No. 27, made in 1889 by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in collaboration with Johnson Mattey and given to the United States,[57] which served as the standard for American cartography from 1890 replacing the Committee Meter, an authentic copy of the Mètre des Archives produced in 1799 in Paris, which Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler had brought to the United States in 1805.[26]

The French government gave practical support to the creation of an International Metre Commission, which met in Paris in 1870 and again in 1872 with the participation of about thirty countries.[10][7] There was much discussion within this commission, considering the opportunity either to keep as definitive the units represented by the standards of the Archives, or to return to the primitive definitions, and to correct the units to bring them closer to them. Since its origin, the metre has kept a double definition; it is both the ten-millionth part of the quarter meridian and the length represented by the Mètre des Archives. The first is historical, the second is metrological. The first solution prevailed, in accordance with common sense and in accordance with the advice of the French Academy of Sciences. Abandoning the values represented by the standards, would have consecrated an extremely dangerous principle, that of the change of units to any progress of measurements; the Metric System would be perpetually threatened with change, that is to say with ruin. Thus the Commission called for the creation of a new international prototype metre which length would be as close as possible to that of the Mètre des Archives and the arrangement of a system where national standards could be compared with it.[48]

At the session on 12 October 1872 of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission, which was to become the International Committee for Weights and Measures,[7] Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero was elected president.[58][59] On 6 May 1873 during the 6th session of the French section of the Metre Commission, Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville cast a 20-kilogram platinum-iridium ingot from Matthey in his laboratory at the École normale supérieure (Paris). On 13 May 1874, 250 kilograms of platinum-iridium to be used for several national prototypes of the metre was cast at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers.[10] When a conflict broke out regarding the presence of impurities in the metre-alloy of 1874, a member of the Preparatory Committee since 1870 and president of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission, Carlos Ibáñez e Ibáñez de Ibero intervened with the French Academy of Sciences to rally France to the project to create an International Bureau of Weights and Measures equipped with the scientific means necessary to redefine the units of the metric system according to the progress of sciences.[60] In fact, the chemical analysis of the alloy produced in 1874 by the French section revealed contamination by ruthenium and iron which led the International Committee for Weights and Measures to reject, in 1877, the prototypes produced by the French section from the 1874 alloy. It also seemed at the time that the production of prototypes with an X profile was only possible through the extrusion process, which resulted in iron contamination. However, it soon turned out that the prototypes designed by Henri Tresca could be produced by milling.[9]

The 1875 Metre Convention and the founding of the BIPM

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Seal of the BIPM

Two members of the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission, the German astronomer, Wilhelm Julius Foerster, director of the Berlin Observatory and director of the German Weights and Measures Service, and the Swiss geodesist of German origin, Adolphe Hirsch were also among the main architects of the Metre Convention.[8] While the German astronomer Wilhelm Julius Foerster along with the Russian and Austrian representatives boycotted the Permanent Committee of the International Metre Commission in order to prompt the reunion of the Diplomatic Conference of the Metre and to promote the foundation of a permanent International Bureau of Weights and Measures,[61][8] Adolphe Hirsch, delegate of Switzerland at this Diplomatic Conference in 1875, conformed to the opinion of Italy and Spain to create, in spite of French reluctance, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France as a permanent institution at the disadvantage of the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers.[62][63] The Metre Convention was signed on 20 May 1875 in Paris and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures was created under the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures, presided by Carlos Ibáñez e ibáñez de Ibero.[59]

The 1889 General Conference on Weights and Measures

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In 1889, the General Conference on Weights and Measures, presided by Alfred Descloizeaux, met at the Pavillon de Breteuil, the seat of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. It performed the first great deed dictated by the motto inscribed in the pediment of the splendid edifice that is the metric system: "A tous les temps, à tous les peuples" (For all times, to all peoples); and this deed consisted in the approval and distribution, among the governments of the states supporting the Metre Convention, of prototype standards of hitherto unknown precision intended to propagate the metric unit throughout the whole world.[22][64]

For metrology the matter of expansibility was fundamental; as a matter of fact, the temperature measuring error related to the length measurement in proportion to the expansibility of the standard and the constantly renewed efforts of metrologists to protect their measuring instruments against the interfering influence of temperature revealed clearly the importance they attached to the expansion-induced errors. It was common knowledge, for instance, that effective measurements were possible only inside a building, the rooms of which were well protected against the changes in outside temperature, and the very presence of the observer created an interference against which it was often necessary to take strict precautions.[22] Thus, the Contracting States also received a collection of thermometers whose accuracy made it possible to ensure that of length measurements.[65] The international prototype would also be a "line standard"; that is, the metre was defined as the distance between two lines marked on the bar, so avoiding the wear problems of end standards.[9]

The comparison of the new prototypes of the metre with each other involved the development of special measuring equipment and the definition of a reproducible temperature scale. The BIPM's thermometry work led to the discovery of special alloys of iron–nickel, in particular invar, whose practically negligible coefficient of expansion made it possible to develop simpler baseline measurement methods, and for which its director, the Swiss physicist Charles-Edouard Guillaume, was granted the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1920. Guillaume's Nobel Prize marked the end of an era in which metrology was leaving the field of geodesy to become an autonomous scientific discipline able of redefining the metre through technological applications of physics.[66][23][10] On the other hand, the fondation of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey by Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler paved the way to the actual definition of the metre, with Charles Sanders Peirce being the first to experimentally link the metre to the wave length of a spectral line. Albert Abraham Michelson soon took up the idea and improved it.[49]

From Greenwich Mean Time to the 2019 revision of the SI

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On 9 March 1911, France adopted Greenwich Mean Time by law. However, the law did not refer to Greenwich Prime Meridian, but to the local mean time of Paris delayed by 9 minutes and 21 seconds.[67] From 1910, the astronomical clocks of the Paris Observatory sent the time to sea daily through the Eiffel Tower within a radius of 5 000 km.[68]

The development of wireless telegraphy allowed unifying Universal Time.[68] In 1912, following a report by Gustave Ferrié, the Bureau des Longitudes organized at the Paris Observatory a Conférence internationale de l'heure radiotélégraphique (International Radiotelegraph Time Conference). The International Time Bureau was created and installed in the premises of the Paris Observatory. However, due to World War I, the International Convention was never ratified.[69] In 1919, the existence of the International Time Bureau was formalized under the authority of an International Time Commission, under the aegis of the International Astronomical Union, created by Benjamin Baillaud.[68] The International Time Bureau was dissolved in 1987 and its tasks were divided between the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS),[69] which replaced the International Polar Motion Service and the earth-rotation section of the International Time Bureau.[70]

In 1936, irregularities in the speed of Earth's rotation due to the unpredictable movement of air and water masses were discovered through the use of quartz clocks. They implied that the Earth's rotation was an imprecise way of determining time. As a result, the definition of the second, first seen as a fraction of the Earth's rotation, evolved and became a fraction of the Earth's orbit. Finally, in 1967, the second was defined by atomic clocks.[68] The resulting time scale is the International Atomic Time (TAI). Currently, it is established from more than 450 atomic clocks world-wide by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.[71] So far, the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service also plays a role in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by deciding whether to insert a leap second so that it is kept in line with the rotation of the Earth.[72]

The International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the French Système international (d'unités)), the modern form of the metric system was revised in 2019. It is the only system of measurement with an official status in nearly every country in the world. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement starting with seven base units, which are the second (the unit of time with the symbol s), metre (length, m), kilogram (mass, kg), ampere (electric current, A), kelvin (thermodynamic temperature, K), mole (amount of substance, mol), and candela (luminous intensity, cd). Since 2019, the magnitudes of all SI units have been defined by declaring exact numerical values for seven defining constants when expressed in terms of their SI units. These defining constants are the hyperfine transition frequency of caesium ΔνCs, the speed of light in vacuum c, the Planck constant h, the elementary charge e, the Boltzmann constant k, the Avogadro constant NA, and the luminous efficacy Kcd.[73]

Function

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Metre Convention signatories

The BIPM has the mandate to provide the basis for a single, coherent system of measurements throughout the world, traceable to the International System of Units (SI). This task takes many forms, from direct dissemination of units to coordination through international comparisons of national measurement standards (as in electricity and ionising radiation).[citation needed]

Following consultation, a draft version of the BIPM Work Programme is presented at each meeting of the General Conference for consideration with the BIPM budget. The final programme of work is determined by the CIPM in accordance with the budget agreed to by the CGPM.[citation needed]

Currently, the BIPM's main work includes:[59][74][75]

  • Scientific and technical activities carried out in its four departments: chemistry, ionising radiation, physical metrology, and time
  • Liaison and coordination work, including providing the secretariat for the CIPM Consultative Committees and some of their Working Groups and for the CIPM MRA, and providing institutional liaison with the other bodies supporting the international quality infrastructure and other international bodies
  • Capacity building and knowledge transfer programs to increase the effectiveness within the worldwide metrology community of those Member State and Associates with emerging metrology systems
  • A resource centre providing a database and publications for international metrology

The BIPM is one of the twelve member organisations of the International Network on Quality Infrastructure (INetQI), which promotes and implements QI activities in metrology, accreditation, standardisation and conformity assessment.[76]

The BIPM has an important role in maintaining accurate worldwide time of day. It combines, analyses, and averages the official atomic time standards of member nations around the world to create a single, official Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).[77]

Directors

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Pavillon de Breteuil in Saint-Cloud, France

Since its establishment, the directors of the BIPM have been:[78][79]

Name Country Mandate Notes
Gilbert Govi Italy 1875–1877
J. Pernet Switzerland 1877–1879 Acting director
Ole Jacob Broch Norway 1879–1889
J.-René Benoît France 1889–1915
Charles Édouard Guillaume Switzerland 1915–1936
Albert Pérard France 1936–1951
Charles Volet Switzerland 1951–1961
Jean Terrien France 1962–1977
Pierre Giacomo France 1978–1988
Terry J. Quinn United Kingdom 1988–2003 Honorary director
Andrew J. Wallard United Kingdom 2004–2010 Honorary director
Michael Kühne Germany 2011–2012
Martin J. T. Milton United Kingdom 2013–present

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ English translations by government agencies have used the initialism IBWM in documentation.[3]

References

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  1. ^ Staff writer (2024). "Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM)". UIA Global Civil Society Database. uia.org. Brussels, Belgium: Union of International Associations. Yearbook of International Organizations Online. Retrieved 1 February 2025.
  2. ^ "Welcome". BIPM. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
  3. ^ "5 FAH-3 H-310 Organization acronyms". Foreign Affairs Manual. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  4. ^ "International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM)". BIPM. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  5. ^ Pellet, Alain (2009). Droit international public. LGDJ. p. 574. ISBN 978-2-275-02390-8.
  6. ^ Schermers, Henry G.; Blokker, Niels M. (2018). International Institutional Law. Brill. pp. 302–303. ISBN 978-90-04-38165-0.
  7. ^ a b c Débarbat, Suzanne; Quinn, Terry (2019). "Les origines du système métrique en France et la Convention du mètre de 1875, qui a ouvert la voie au Système international d'unités et à sa révision de 2018". Comptes Rendus. Physique (in French). 20 (1–2): 6–21. Bibcode:2019CRPhy..20....6D. doi:10.1016/j.crhy.2018.12.002. ISSN 1878-1535.
  8. ^ a b c d Quinn, Terry (2019). "Wilhelm Foerster's Role in the Metre Convention of 1875 and in the Early Years of the International Committee for Weights and Measures". Annalen der Physik. 531 (5): 2. Bibcode:2019AnP...53100355Q. doi:10.1002/andp.201800355. ISSN 1521-3889. S2CID 125240402.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Quinn, T. J. (2012). From artefacts to atoms: the BIPM and the search for ultimate measurement standards. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–10, 14, 90–91, 56–57, 72, 108, 56–57. ISBN 978-0-19-990991-9. OCLC 861693071.
  10. ^ a b c d e f "History – The BIPM 150". Retrieved 24 January 2025.
  11. ^ The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (PDF). U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. May 1975.
  12. ^ a b Cajori, Florian (1921). "Swiss Geodesy and the United States Coast Survey". The Scientific Monthly. 13 (2): 117–129. Bibcode:1921SciMo..13..117C. ISSN 0096-3771.
  13. ^ a b Jamʻīyah al-Jughrāfīyah al-Miṣrīyah (1876). Bulletin de la Société de géographie d'Égypte. University of Michigan. [Le Caire]. pp. 5–16.
  14. ^ Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá (1886). Notes biographiques de S.E. Mahmoud Pacha el Falaki (l'astronome), par Ismail-Bey Moustapha et le colonel Moktar-Bey. pp. 10–11.
  15. ^ a b Ismāʿīl-Afandī Muṣṭafá (1864). Recherche des coefficients de dilatation et étalonnage de l'appareil à mesurer les bases géodésiques appartenant au gouvernement égyptien / par Ismaïl-Effendi-Moustapha, ...
  16. ^ Alder, Ken; Devillers-Argouarc'h, Martine (2015). Mesurer le monde: l'incroyable histoire de l'invention du mètre. Libres Champs. Paris: Flammarion. pp. 499–520. ISBN 978-2-08-130761-2.
  17. ^ a b Bericht über die Verhandlungen der vom 30. September bis 7. October 1867 zu BERLIN abgehaltenen allgemeinen Conferenz der Europäischen Gradmessung (PDF) (in German). Berlin: Central-Bureau der Europäischen Gradmessung. 1868. pp. 123–134.
  18. ^ a b c d Hirsch, Adolphe (1892). Comptes-rendus des séances de la Commission permanente de l'Association géodésique internationale réunie à Florence du 8 au 17 octobre 1891 (in French). De Gruyter, Incorporated. pp. 101–109. ISBN 978-3-11-128691-4.
  19. ^ a b c Guillaume, Ch.-Éd. (1927). La Création du Bureau International des poids et mesures et son œuvre [The creation of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and its work]. Paris: Gauthier-Villars et Cie, Éditeur. pp. 18–19, 321.
  20. ^ a b c d "Earth, Figure of the" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 801–813.
  21. ^ a b "Mesure du 1er mètre : une erreur qui changea le monde". Techniques de l'Ingénieur (in French). Retrieved 30 March 2025.
  22. ^ a b c Guillaume, Charles Édouard. "Nobel Prize in Physics 1920". NobelPrize.org. p. 445. Retrieved 27 March 2025.
  23. ^ a b c Guillaume, C.-H.-Ed (1 January 1906). "La mesure rapide des bases géodésiques". Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée. 5: 242–263. doi:10.1051/jphystap:019060050024200.
  24. ^ Bigourdan, Guillaume (1901). Le système métrique des poids et mesures ; son établissement et sa propagation graduelle, avec l'histoire des opérations qui ont servi à déterminer le mètre et le kilogramme. University of Ottawa. Paris : Gauthier-Villars. pp. 10, 158.
  25. ^ a b c Wolf, M. C (1882). Recherches historiques sur les étalons de poids et mesures de l'observatoire et les appareils qui ont servi a les construire (in French). Paris: Gauthier-Villars. pp. 7–8, 20, 32. OCLC 16069502.
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